Subject Content Knowledge For The In Field Assessment Education Essay

In 2002, teacher abrasion rates and keeping jobs ( Ingersoll, 2002 ) compounded the issue of out-of-field instructors, increasing the strain of run intoing the demands of puting a extremely qualified instructor in every schoolroom ( NCLB, 2001 ) . In President Bush ‘s 2006 State of the Union Address he pledged to make an extra 30,000 new mathematics and scientific discipline instructors to rectify for these deficits ( Bush, 2006 ) . Interestingly, in 2009 Ingersoll concluded that the instructor deficits were no longer the taking cause of the deficiency of high quality instructors but instead it was due to permeant school staffing and direction jobs. A Teacher deficits are still a major, nevertheless ; several research surveies have found that â€Å" extremely qualified † instructor shortages has become an even greater concern ( Blank, Langesen, Laird, DeMello, 2003 ; National Academy of Sciences, 2007 ; National Center for Education Statistics, 1997 ; Ingersoll, 2002 ; Rumberger, 1987 ; U.S. Department of Education, 2009 ) . Drum sanders ( 2004 ) concluded that 57 % of in-between school pupils were taught by a instructor who had non earned adequate college credits to declare a minor country of survey in a related field ; , 48 % of in-between school physical scientific discipline pupils were taught by a instructor missing a child in a related field. More late, a survey by Schools and Trust ( 2008 ) found that teacher mis-assignments totaled 27 % of the nucleus classs in the state ‘s high-poverty schools. Mis-assignment is the assignment of a certified instructor to learn in a content country that he or she does non hol d an indorsement or major, and therefore has deficient content command. Alternatively, these instructors may be considered partly out-of field. Out-of-field assignments are still rather common. In each of the six old ages of informations aggregation, Donaldson and Johnson ( 2010 ) found that anyplace from 57 % to 74 % of math instructors, 16 % to 31 % of societal surveies instructors, and 38 % to 48 % of scientific discipline instructors lacked a major in the field they were learning. Out-of-field assignments were most prevailing in the first one or two old ages of respondents ‘ callings ( Donaldson & A ; Johnson, 2010 ) . Despite a extremely qualified position, if a instructor is mis-assigned or learning wholly out-of-field they are missing the necessary preparation and cognition needed to decently turn to the demands of the pupils. Filling the schoolroom with quality instructors remains a primary concern within the educational system. Having extremely qualified instructors with cognition and background in their content countries and strong supervising from content leaders and decision makers is critical to the success of their pupils ( Garner, 2007 ) . The National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education has claimed that teacher quality represents â€Å" the parallel development of learning cognition that is specific to the content being taught, every bit good as general pedagogical cognition † ( Hattie, 2008 ) . This research survey examined the differences in instructor quality when instructors are outside their primary field of survey. This step of instructor quality represents a contemplation of a instructor ‘s capable content cognition ( SCK ) and pedagogical content cognition ( PCK ) . The two cognition spheres of each instructor were measured both in math ( in-field tonss ) and in scientific discipline ( out-of-field tonss ) . Hill, Rowan, and Ball ( 2005 ) found that instructors ‘ mathematical cognition was significantly related to student achievement additions. Furthermore, there are several surveies that indicate instructors that have a grade majoring in mathematics are strongly associated with higher pupil accomplishment in high school and in-between school ( Aaronson, Barrow, & A ; Sanders, 2007 ; Frome, Lasater, & A ; Cooney, 2005: Goldhaber & A ; Brewer, 2000: Monk, 1994 ; Wenglinsky, 2000, 2002 ) . It has besides been shown that teacher subject-area enfranchisement is systematically and strongly associated with high school and in-between school pupil accomplishment ( Cavalluzzo, 2004 ; Goldhaber & A ; Brewer, 2000 ) . Several research surveies exist, sing either teacher effectivity, teacher quality, or pupil accomplishment, each of which step in some signifier or another both pedagogical content cognition and capable content cognition of the instructors ( Hauk, Jackson, & A ; Noblet, 2010 ; Saderholm, A Ronau, Brown, & A ; Collins, 2010 ) . Similarly, in this survey the research worker measured the capable content cognition and the pedagogical content cognition of instructors as the finding step of instructor quality. Specifically, in-between school mathematics instructors ‘ capable content cognition and pedagogical content cognition in mathematics were compared to their capable content cognition and pedagogical content cognition in physical scientific discipline. In this survey 21 in-between school mathematics instructors were given the Diagnostic Teacher Assessment of Mathematics and Science ( DTAMS ) Instrument for both mathematics ( Algebraic Ideas Assessment ) and Science ( Physical Science Assessment ) . The DTAMS instrument has been shown to be both a valid and dependable study designed to mensurate Capable Content Knowledge and Pedagogical Content Knowledge in math and scientific discipline ( Brown, McGatha, & A ; Karp, 2006 ) . Both Subject Content Knowledge and Pedagogical Content Knowledge have been used to mensurate teacher effectivity and finally a step of instructor quality ( Ball, Thames, & A ; Phelps, 2008 ; Hill, Ball, & A ; Schilling ; 2008 ; Manizade, 2007 ) . Once both Subject Content Knowledge and Pedagogical Content Knowledge tonss are established they were combined to organize a step for teacher quality. This was done for both in-field tonss and out-of-field tonss. After which the instructor quality tonss for both in-field and out-of-field were straight compared to bespeak the grade to which a instructor either additions or losingss quality. This research survey addresses the inquiry: What is the difference in quality of an in-field instructor compared to an out-of-field instructor – specifically in math as the in-field and scientific discipline as the out-of-field content country? Two features that continue to come up when reexamining surveies affecting instructor effectivity are the instructors ‘ natural cognition of the capable affair and their ability to transform that cognition into an prosecuting lesson for pupils. These properties of instructor effectivity are more normally referred to as capable content cognition and pedagogical content cognition. This survey may offer a more direct comparing of a instructor ‘s ability to utilize these traits outside their primary field of survey. The results of this survey may turn out to be important to the professional development community at big. Furthermore, the consequences of this survey may congratulate an of import research undertaking, titled â€Å" Measures of Effective Teaching † ( MET ) , sponsored by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Developed by research workers at Educational Testing Service ( ETS ) and the University of Michigan, the MET is designed to mensurate non-traditional facets of cognition particular to instruction. The research worker administered both the mathematics part ( Algebraic Ideas ) and the scientific discipline part ( Physical Science ) of the DTAMS study, designed to mensurate both the pedagogical content cognition every bit good as capable content cognition, to attest in-between school mathematics instructors. The studies were so scored by the University of Louisville Center for Research in Mathematics and Science Teacher Development ( CRMSTD ) staff. The tonss from the mathematics part of the DTAMS were used as the baseline tonss and referred to as the in-field tonss. The tonss from the scientific discipline part of the DTAMS were referred to as the out-of-field tonss. The grade to which the in-field tonss differ from the out-of-field tonss indicated the expected alteration in a instructor ‘s cognition domains when learning outside her primary field of survey. One of the primary restrictions of this survey stemmed from the size of the population. The appraisal in this survey was based on self-reported responses ; nevertheless, it is expected that since the participants are professionals their responses were echt. The population size is restricted for two grounds. First, each participant was expected to finish two studies that took about one hr each. This was a clip devouring undertaking, and it was hard to happen adequate in-between school math instructors that were willing to take part. Second, each study cost the research worker 10 dollars to be evaluated by the trained scorers from The University of Louisville Center for Research in Mathematics and Science Teacher Development. It should be noted that the participants were purely voluntary and were non compensated. Using trained scorers was necessary to guarantee the cogency and dependability of the studies.Problem BackgroundIt was reported that in 2000, 23 % of public in-between school pupils and 10 % of public high school pupils received their instruction in mathematics by instructors without a major or enfranchisement in math instruction. These Numberss are somewhat greater when looking at private schools ( Seastrom, Gruber, Henke, McGrath, & A ; Cohen, 2002 ) . Donaldson and Johnson ( 2010 ) found the Numberss to be more disturbing. With six old ages of informations aggregation, Donaldson and Johnson found that anyplace from 57 % to 74 % of math instructors, 16 % to 31 % of societal surveies instructors, and 38 % to 48 % of scientific discipline instructors lacked a major in the field they were learning. With new statistical and analytical methods used by a broad scope of research workers, grounds has been mounting that teacher quality can account for a big portion of discrepancy in student trial tonss ( Boyd, Lankford, Loeb, Rockoff, & A ; Wyckoff, 2008 ; Ferguson, 1991 ; Hanushek, 1996 ; Hanushek, Kain, & A ; Rivkin, 2009 ; Rockoff, 2004 ) . Quality instructors are indispensable to the success of any school plan. The two most of import properties of a quality instructor is their capable content cognition and their pedagogical content cognition ( Even, 1993 ; Hill, Rowan, & A ; Ball, 2005 ; Ma, 1999 ; RAND, 2003 ) . Teachers who have met the demanding criterions of National Board Certification and those who have generated higher â€Å" value-added † pupil accomplishment additions are far less likely to learn economically disadvantaged and minority pupils ( Cavalluzzo, 2004 ; Goldhaber & A ; Anthony, 2004 ; Humphrey, Koppich, & A ; Hough, 2005 ; Sanders & A ; Rivers, 1996 ) . As a consequence, high-poverty schools are more likely to be beset with learning vacancies in math and particular instruction, and much more likely to staff schoolrooms with out-of-field, inexperient and less-prepared instructors. ( Ingersoll, 2002 ; Mayer, Mullens, & A ; Moore, 2002 ; Strizek, Pittsonberger, Riordan, Lyter, & A ; Orlofsky, 2006 ) . The pattern of engaging instructors to learn topics that they are non qualified for is good documented and a serious hurt to the territories, the instructors and most significantly the success of the pupils. This is particularly true in high minority and high poorness countries. The dearth in the literature occurs when trying to quantify the grade to which an out-of-field instructor differs in abilities and strengths to instructors that remain within their primary field of survey. A few more recent surveies have shown that a decently certified instructor who is learning in their specific field of survey contributes greatly to the success of their pupils. Out-of-field instructors are significantly less successful in increasing pupil accomplishment ( Board of Regents, 2008 ) . Research has besides systematically and clearly pointed out that effectual instruction is a extremely important factor impacting pupil accomplishment ( Babu & A ; Mendro, 2003 ; Hanushek, Kain, & A ; Rivkin, 2009 ) . Furthermore when it comes to effectual instruction, research has found that teacher experience and capable content cognition has systematically shown important impact on pupil accomplishment ( Gordon, Kane, & A ; Staiger, 2006 ; A Rice, 2003 ; Hanushek, Kain, & A ; Rivkin, 2009 ; Rockoff, May 2004 ) . Effective instruction implies instructors have well-developed pedagogical content cognition, yet this cognition develops over clip ( Ball, Lubienski, & A ; Mewborn, 2001 ; Grossm an, 1990 ) . A turning figure of research surveies are trying to flesh out a relationship between capable content cognition and pedagogical content cognition ( Ball, 1990 ; Ball, Hill & A ; Schilling, 2004 ; Ball, Thames, & A ; Phelps, 2008 ; Hill, Ball, & A ; Schilling, 2008 ; Ma, 1999 ; Manizade, 2007 ; Shulman, 1986 ; Thornton, 2004 ; Wilson, Shulman & A ; Richert, 1987 ) . Shin, Koehler, Mishra, Schmidt, Baran, and Thompson ( 2009 ) demonstrated thatA the degree of pedagogical content cognition of a instructor contributes significantly toward effectual instruction and pupil public presentation. Furthermore, there have been an increased figure of research surveies trying to operationalize the step of instructor ‘s pedagogical content cognition by manner of a paper pencil system or online study ( Ball, 2003 ; Kromrey & A ; Renfrow, 1991 ; Shin et al. , 2009 ) . Saderholm, A Ronau, Brown, and Collins ( 2010 ) have late contributed to the hunt for instructor quality by formalizing the Diagnostic Teacher Assessment in Mathematics and Science ( DTAMS ) mathematics appraisals for middle-school instructors. The dependability and cogency of the DTAMS appraisals were ab initio established by using adept inquiry composing squads and referees every bit good as reexamining national criterions for content.A DTAMS measures both capable content cognition and pedagogical content cognition in several math and scientific discipline subjects. These subjects are straight related to teacher quality and pupil accomplishment. There were two distinguishable ( DTAMS ) appraisals that were utilized in this survey. The in-field ( mathematics ) DTAMS Algebraic Ideas appraisal measuredA memorized cognition, conceptual apprehension, higher-order thought, and pedagogical content cognition. The out-of-field ( scientific discipline ) Physical Science appraisal measured declaratory cognition, scientific enquiry and processs, conventional cognition, pedagogical content cognition, and scientific discipline, engineering, and society cognition ( Brown, McGatha, & A ; Karp, 2006 ) .Purpose of the StudyThis survey was designed to mensurate the alteration in a instructor ‘s capable and pedagogical properties if they were to learn outside of her field of survey. By understanding the grade to which a instructor ‘s cognition spheres change when learning merely outside of their primary field of survey, pedagogues and decision makers would hold a more clear apprehension as to the effects an out-of-field instructor m ay hold on his or her pupils. More specifically, this survey focused in on two closely related Fieldss, mathematics and physical scientific discipline. This offers an exceeding penetration as to the alone differences in both capable content and pedagogical content cognition that an out-of-field instructor would hold in the instruction of pupils. These differences could function as a pace stick for disposal and policy shapers as they consider the issue of engaging out-of-field instructors and ultimate success or failure of their pupils and schools. It has been good established that non merely is the quality of the instructor the individual most of import schooling factor foretelling pupil results ( Ferguson 1998 ; Goldhaber 2002 ; Goldhaber, 1999 ; Hanushek, 1999 ) , but that â€Å" the quality of a instructor can do the difference of a full twelvemonth ‘s acquisition growing † ( Hanushek, 1992, p.8 ) . Furthermore, many research workers and pedagogues agree that a combination of both capable content cognition and pedagogical content cognition are the primary properties of a quality instructor ( Ball & A ; Bass, 2000 ; Ma, 1999 ; Rowland, Martyn, Barber & A ; Heal, 2000 ; Shulman 1986, 1987, 1996 ) .Research QuestionsThis research is designed to reply several inquiries. First, how much capable content cognition is gained or lost when a in-between school mathematics teacher Teachs outside his/her field in physical scientific discipline? H1: In-between school instructors certified to learn mathematics will demo a lessening in capable content cognition when they teach outside of their field, physical scientific discipline. H1a: In-between school instructors certified to learn mathematics will demo no important alteration in capable content cognition when they teach outside of their field, physical scientific discipline. H1b: In-between school instructors certified to learn mathematics will demo an addition in capable content cognition when they teach outside of their field, physical scientific discipline. The other of import yet distinguishable cognition sphere that must be considered is the pedagogical content cognition of the instructor. This was done by replying the inquiry, how much pedagogical content cognition is gained or lost when a in-between school mathematics teacher Teachs outside his/her field in physical scientific discipline? H2: In-between school instructors certified to learn mathematics will demo a lessening in pedagogical content cognition when they teach outside of their field, physical scientific discipline. H2a: In-between school instructors certified to learn mathematics will demo no important alteration in pedagogical content cognition when they teach outside of their field, physical scientific discipline. H2b: In-between school instructors certified to learn mathematics will demo an addition in pedagogical content cognition when they teach outside of their field, physical scientific discipline. Finally, the last set of inquiries combines the measurings for both topic and pedagogical content cognition to find an overall consequence on instructor quality. By sing both cognition domains as equal subscribers to the overall step of a teacher quality we can find the general consequence ( addition or lessening ) that in-between school mathematics instructors who teach outside of the field ( physical scientific discipline ) may see. What is the overall consequence on instructor quality when a in-between school mathematics teacher Teachs outside his/her field in physical scientific discipline? H3: The overall quality of in-between school instructors certified to learn mathematics will diminish when they teach outside of their field, physical scientific discipline. H3a: The overall quality of in-between school instructors certified to learn mathematics will demo no important alteration when they teach outside of their field, physical scientific discipline. H3b: The overall quality of in-between school instructors certified to learn mathematics will increase when they teach outside of their field, physical scientific discipline.Restrictions and Boundary linesThe population used in this survey was its primary restriction. The sample of participants included 21 instructors that were certified to learn in-between school mathematics in Illinois. The research worker administered both the Algebraic Ideas Survey ( DTAMS ) and the Physical Science Survey ( DTAMS ) . Each study took approximately 60 proceedingss to finish. A committedness of two hours of the participants ‘ clip was a big petition ; this limited the figure of participants willing to react to this survey. The studies were so sent to the University of Louisville Center for Research in Mathematics and Science Teacher Development ( CRMSTD ) for analysis by the research worker of this survey. The analysis included a comparing of both capable content cognition and pedagogical con tent cognition of the instructors for both in-field ( mathematics ) and out-of-field ( physical scientific discipline ) . The consequences of this comparing addressed straight the research inquiries found in this survey. Distinct advantages and disadvantages occur that are declarative of a descriptive research design. This survey specifically targets the relationship between in-field tonss and out-of-field tonss doing a correlational analysis an appropriate foundation. A correlational analysis lent itself of course in seeking relationships between capable content cognition, pedagogical content cognition and among the related demographics. However, no affair how important the correlativity, causing can non be inferred due to possible influence of unbridled immaterial variables. Several statistical methods were implemented so as to counter the influence certain specific variables may hold on the consequences of this survey. These variables include age, experience, educational history, and socio-economic work environment. Finally, it is of import to observe that respondents were non given the chance for elucidation of study inquiries nor did they have an chance to explicate their reading of the inquiry. Misconstrued inquiries frequently times led to an inappropriate response when in fact the participant may really good hold a clear and strong apprehension of the topic or variable features being measured.Definition of FootingsIn this research survey, it is peculiarly of import to explicitly specify any cardinal footings. In the undermentioned subdivision the primary key footings are defined.Capable Content Knowledge for the Out-of-Field AssessmentDeclarative Knowledge: A This cognition is entirely based on facts and definitions. Teachers with this cognition have the accomplishments to execute rote algorithmic undertakings that are indispensable to work outing jobs. The ability to remember facts, regulations, scientific Torahs and definitions is a important constituent in instruction ( Brown, McGatha, & A ; Karp, 2006 ) . Scientific Inquiry and Procedures: A Scientific processs and attacks represent the cognition type that allows for the ability to acknowledge the elements of scientific enquiry such as placing inquiries for scientific enquiry, design and behavior scientific probes and experiments, use appropriate informations aggregation and analysis techniques, the ability to believe critically about the informations and to do logical decisions and accounts ( Brown, McGatha, & A ; Karp, 2006 ) . Conventional Knowledge: A Schematic cognition represents a more in-depth apprehension of the nature of scientific constructs, rules and related phenomenon. Teachers with this cognition can efficaciously compare and contrast assorted scientific belongingss and features and can explicate bounds and the development of current scientific cognition ( Brown, McGatha, & A ; Karp, 2006 ) . Science, Technology, and Society Knowledge ( STS ) : This cognition allows instructors to bridge the spread between the scientific community and its influences on society as a whole. Teachers were able to show a thorough apprehension of the function that human demands play in the development and application of scientific discipline every bit good as a historical and planetary position of how scientific finds have impacted society. It is the nature by which scientific discipline, engineering, society, and current environments interact and germinate as a individual entity ( Brown, McGatha, & A ; Karp, 2006 ) .Capable Content Knowledge for the In-Field AssessmentMemorized Cognition: This is most closely related to the antecedently mentioned declaratory cognition in the old appraisal. This is cognition that is based upon using the accomplishments and algorithms necessary for accurate calculation. This is non conceptual by nature nor is it a step of job work outing abilities. Teachers wit h this cognition can execute calculations affecting assorted algorithms, definitions, and a remembrance of facts ( DTAMS, 2006 ) . Conceptual Understanding: This cognition corresponds most closely to Schematic Knowledge for the scientific discipline appraisal, wherein it represents the knowing and understanding why. Teachers with this cognition have the ability to do connexions between mathematical subjects and to see the general relationship that unambiguously binds these subjects into cosmopolitan constructs ( Brown, McGatha, & A ; Karp, 2006 ) . Problem Solving and Reasoning: This cognition represents the tactical cognition needed to infer what is of import mathematical information in non-standard math jobs, and cognize how and why one can use different mathematical attacks to happen solutions to an array of applications ( Brown, McGatha, & A ; Karp, 2006 ) .Pedagogical Content KnowledgePedagogical Content Knowledge: Lee Shulman coined the phrase â€Å" pedagogical content cognition † in 1985 and possibly specify it best in his ain words ( Shulman, 1987, p. 13 ) : [ Pedagogical Content Knowledge is the ability to ] elucidate capable affair in new ways, reorganize and divider it, clothe it in activities and emotions, in metaphors and exercisings, and in illustrations and presentations, so that it can be grasped by pupils. Additionally, pedagogical content cognition â€Å" represents a category of cognition that is cardinal to instructors ‘ work and that would non typically be held by non-teaching capable affair experts or by instructors who know little of that topic † ( Marks, 1990, p. 9 ) . For this survey the term Pedagogical Content Knowledge most closely reflected the following definition from the Diagnostic Teacher Assessment in Mathematics and Science: This cognition represents strategic cognition for mathematics teaching- † cognizing when, where, and how to outdo Teach mathematics † ( Brown, McGatha, & A ; Karp, 2006, p. 1 ) . Once once more these appraisals concentrated on the usage of pedagogical content cognition in the rectification of pupil misconceptions about mathematics. Teachers with this cognition can fulfill two standards: acknowledge the pupils ‘ misconceptions, and depict the most effectual ways to learn peculiar mathematical constructs utilizing the most powerful analogies, illustrations, illustrations, accounts, experiments, and presentations.Middle School TeachersFor the intents of this survey in-between school instructor is defined as any instructor certified to learn 6th, 7th, and 8th class.Significance of the StudyTeachers in h igh poorness, high minority schools are more likely to be less experient, less educated, learning on exigency licenses or releases, and learning topics for which they are non qualified ( Carroll, Reichardt & A ; Guarino, 2000 ; Darling-Hammond, 2002 ; Goe, 2002 ; Hanushek, Kain, O'Brien, & A ; Rivkin, 2005 ; Ingersoll, 2002 ; Lankford, Loeb, & A ; Wyckoff, 2002 ; Marvel, Lyter, Peltola, Strizek, & A ; Morton, 2007 ; Peske & A ; Haycock, 2006 ; Scafidi, Sjoquist, & A ; Stinebrickner, 2007 ; Useem & A ; Farly, 2004 ) . Mathematicss and scientific discipline, in peculiar, are typically targeted as Fieldss most enduring from deficits ( Grissmer & A ; Kirby, 1992, 1997 ; Liu & A ; Ramsey, 2008 ; Murnane et al. , 1991 ; National Commission on Mathematics and Science Teaching, 2000 ; Weiss & A ; Boyd, 1990 ) . In fact, legion high-profile studies from organisations including the National Academy of Sciences ( 2006 ) , the National Research Council ( 2002 ) , and the US Department of Educat ion ( 2002 ) have straight tied mathematics and scientific discipline instructor deficits to the quality of educational public presentation and, in bend, to the future wellbeing of the economic system and the security of the state. Although many in-between school decision makers may experience it necessary to use instructors in countries for which they are under-qualified, this survey may bespeak the hazards to student accomplishment based on an out-of-field policy. Research has systematically pointed to effectual instruction as the most important factor impacting pupil accomplishment ( Babu & A ; Mendro, 2003 ; Manizade, 2007 ; Rivkin, Hanushek, & A ; Kain, 2005 ) . This survey is important to foster the apprehension of the benefits and/or hazards of utilizing out-of-field instructors in a in-between school scientific discipline category. Repeating the educational demand for quality instructors, the research community including the Research and Development ( RAND ) Mathematics Study Panel of 2003 had called for increasing criterions for teacher readying plans ( RAND, 2003 ) . This survey would offer some penetration as to the direct and distinguishable difference in instructor quality when sing a arrangement of an out-of-field instructor into a schoolroom that they are non to the full prepared to learn.DecisionAdditions in pupil accomplishment are, more frequently than non, accredited to the quality of the instructor. Loopholes in the hiring patterns of quality instructors have led to an addition in out-of-field instructors in the schoolroom. In chapter 1 it was stated that research workers normally view teacher quality as a combination of both capable content cognition and pedagogical content cognition. The intent of this research was to mensurate the difference in teacher quality between in-field and out-of-field instructors. The consequences of this survey are important in that it contributes to the broader apprehension of how out-of-field instructor impact instruction. Chapter one is an overview of the research that was performed ; an debut to the background of the job, intent of the survey, research inquiries with hypotheses, definition of cardinal footings, restrictions of the survey, and the importance of the survey. In the undermentioned chapters, there is a reappraisal of the relevant research related to this survey, an account of the methods employed, informations analysis with an account of the consequences, and a treatment of how the consequences could be applied.

supreme courts reactivity to popular will in modern times essays

supreme courts reactivity to popular will in modern times essays The Supreme Court safeguards much of its power by creating walls to separate its power from public opinion and political pandering. And while impartiality is undoubtedly the preeminent characteristic desirable in a justice, it is impossible to nominate a human being that is not at least partially fallible and swayed by the society around him. The Warren Court of 1953 to 1969 perfectly illustrates the concurrent philosophies of the Court with the prevailing political party of the day. The growing thought of the time was for increased civil rights and an activist government. President Eisenhower integrated the military and was a strong voice for racial reconciliation. John F. Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson were liberals who were both interested in achieving the Great Society, with racial equality a chief goal. In 1954 the Warren Court unanimously followed the trend of the time, and ruled in Brown v. Board of Ed. that separating blacks from whites was inherently unequal, thereby paving the way for the entire civil rights movement. In '64 the court continued to reflect public opinion, when it chose to accept the very loose interpretation of the interstate commerce clause to further it's activist agenda in the Heart of Atlanta Motel Case, by saying blacks could not be barred from staying in private establishments. The War ren Court reflected the prevailing Democrats in criminal rights as well. Between '61 and '66 the Mapp, Gideon, and Miranda cases all dramatically increased rights of the accused, simultaneous to the most rampant popularity of the Democrats. The Warren court championed separation of church and state, in Engel v. Vitale ('62) and Abbington v. Schempp ('63), and freedom of speech, in Tinker v. Des Moines ('69), as did its Democratic counterparts in Congress and the White House. Of course it is important to recognize that the Warren Court was not merely a knee jerk respondent to public opinion. Many of its decision...

The 21 Best Dogs for Apartment Living

The 21 Best Dogs for Apartment Living SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Living in an apartment doesn’t mean you can’t also have a happy, healthy dog as well (unless your apartment complex doesn’t allow dogs, of course!). Though apartment living comes with a few hurdles when it comes to dog ownership, finding the right dog breed can make all the difference. With a little effort, the majority of dog breeds can live in apartments, but apartment living is certainly easier with some breeds than others. So let’s check out what qualities make for a good apartment dog and the top breeds that fit the bill. What Makes a Good â€Å"Apartment Dog†? There are a few basic qualifications for the best apartment dogs, since living in an apartment (as opposed to living in a freestanding home) brings with it a few restrictions: The size of your place is likely relatively small. You have more difficulty getting a dog to a grassy area to relieve themselves. You have to worry about noise level with your neighbors sharing a wall with you. To help your dog live comfortably in your space, a good apartment dog should meet at least one (but preferably two or three) of four qualities: Be small to medium in size. Have low to medium exercise needs. Be able to hold their bladders for several hours at a time (or be comfortable using a wee mat or turf for their potty needs). Be relatively quiet. Size and Weight Most apartments are much smaller than the average freestanding home, so a dog will have less room to move and romp around in an apartment. The larger the dog, the less room they have in a small space and the more likely they are to feel â€Å"cooped up.† Larger dogs will also be more likely to accidentally leaving destruction in their wake in a small space. An enthusiastic jump or tail-wag from a five-pound dog won’t do much damage in an apartment, but the same gesture from a large dog in a small space can easily knock items off a low table, knock over lamps and other furniture, or otherwise cause chaos. In addition, larger breeds are also more prone to joint and hip problems and can have more difficulty going up and down stairs. And this can get especially tricky in an apartment complex. When it comes to sheer size alone, it’s often best for both dogs and humans if an apartment dog is less than 50 pounds (even better if the dog is less than 25 pounds). There are some exceptions to this rule, but in general, smaller is better for apartment living. Exercise Needs All dogs need daily exercise and living in an apartment can sometimes make this tricky. Without a backyard, your dog must get its daily exercise quotient from walks, some amount of playing and romping in the apartment, and trips to outdoor spaces like a dog park. Some breeds require a boatload of exercise and stimulation to be happy (a Border Collie, for example, could run circles around most people without tiring), while other breeds take a more laid back approach to life. With dedication, you can exercise most dog breeds well enough to handle apartment living, but it will take commitment and a significant amount of time each day to accomplish this. As most people do not have the time or energy to exercise a high-energy breed all the time, the best dog breeds for apartments are those naturally equipped to need less exercise. The best apartment dogs are content with a daily, 20 to 30 minute walk or trip to the park, and will spend the rest of their day snoozing, chewing, or playing games indoors. Potty Needs Even when fully grown, toy breeds and other small dog breeds simply can’t hold their bladders as long as larger breeds can. And living in an apartment can make it more difficult for you to take your dog outside. But don’t despair! If you live in an apartment, you have a few options for your dogs and their potty needs. Because it can sometimes be tricky to constantly take a dog outside, you can either: Choose a dog breed that can hold its bladder for a reasonably long amount of time (seven to eight hours) Choose a dog that’s small enough to comfortably use a wee mat or fake turf If you don’t want dog waste in your home and your apartment has a balcony, you can set up a bathroom area with mats or turf outside. You can also simply set aside a corner of the bathroom or other area of the home for this purpose if you don’t mind your dog going potty indoors. The best apartment dogs will either be able to follow a routine of going outside on a leash with you every seven to eight hours to relieve themselves, or they will be small and trainable enough able to go cleanly and comfortably in or around the apartment. Noise Level Apartment living means sharing walls (and noise) with your neighbors. For the sake of peace and quality of apartment living, it’s a good idea to choose a dog breed that’s less inclined to bark. Some breeds are natural â€Å"watchdogs† and will light up at any perceived threat or noise, while other breeds will generally keep mum. Though, with time and patience, you can train a â€Å"watchdog† to be less reactive, it’s simpler to go with a dog that’s little less likely to light up in the first place. Some dogs will also tend to bark or howl when left alone, so a good apartment dog should be one less inclined towards this kind of separation anxiety. The 21 Best Apartment Dogs Now that we’ve looked at some of the most important criteria of what makes for good apartment dogs, let’s see the breeds that make the cut for the best dogs for apartment living. Bichon Frise Cuddly and kind, the Bichon Frise is a popular toy breed that requires little exercise and isn’t prone to yappiness or other excessive barking. They are easily adaptable to new environments and are willing to listen to training and gentle correction. They can, however, be inclined towards separation anxiety. So you may have to be careful about separation whining or barking and look into separation anxiety training if this happens. Brussels Griffon Despite looking like they walk around with a perpetual cartoon frown, the Brussels Griffon is an extremely sweet breed of dog and wants little more out of life than love and cuddles. In fact, they will often demand love and cuddles (and play!) at home, but they don’t need a lot of outdoor exercise to be happy. They can be stubborn and difficult to train, so try to nip any bad habits- like watchdog barking, whining, or indoor soiling- in the bud before they become too firmly established. And a loving training regime will do wonders to curb any unwanted behavior. Cavalier King Charles Spaniel You’ll never be in want of love or cuddles with a King Charles Cavalier around. An extremely friendly and easy-going dog, some will greet guests by giving a couple of friendly barks and licks. But they aren’t inclined to bark excessively or at strange noises (unless they see a bird out the window). They’re a curious and playful breed, but don’t need much exercise beyond a daily walk. Their favorite place is in a lap- your lap, a friend’s, a stranger’s, any lap will generally do! Chihuahua Popular for their small size and big, sweet eyes, the Chihuahua is an often-seen apartment dog. Though their size and minimum exercise needs are perfectly suited to apartment living, they can also be prone to loudness if not well-trained. So be sure you know how to train against excessive barking before you take on Chihuahua ownership! Chihuahuas are probably best trained on a wee mat or turf since they can’t hold their bladders very long. Coton de Tulear Bouncy balls of cotton-fluff, Coton de Tulears are adaptable, friendly, and fun. They’ll make their own entertainment when you’re busy, but they will also take direction well if it’s time for training or games. They need to spend one or two days a week romping around a park to run, but otherwise are content with daily walks. They’re happy to be outside or inside snuggling, whichever’s on the menu. English Bulldog English Bulldogs are sweet, gentle, and fairly low-maintenance. Not much inclined towards exercise or barking, these dogs would rather be sleeping or lounging than running or sounding the alarm, making them one of the very best dogs for apartments. Do take care that these are brachiocephalic dogs, which means they have flat faces. This can make breathing- especially strenuous breathing- difficult, so be careful with exercise and hot weather and make sure to monitor them closely. French Bulldog Friendly, funny, and relaxed French Bulldogs will often be happy to entertain themselves. But they’ll almost never snub an affection pat, so don’t mistake independence for aloofness. Another brachiocephalic dog breed, so little exercise is needed or required here. Though do take care that the French Bulldog is inclined towards (over)eating, which means you’ll have to be careful of weight gain, since it’s difficult for them to run off those extra pounds. Glen of Imaal Terrier A spunky, curious breed, Glen of Imaal Terriers are eager to explore the environment around them. They are less inclined towards confrontation or hunting than other terriers are, so are a little less likely to get themselves into trouble. Glen of Imaal Terriers require some quick exercise to be happy, so in addition to a daily walk, they’d like a few days in the park, a jog, or other opportunity to run every week, but will be happy to spend the rest of the time indoors with the family. Greyhound Though they’re large, extremely prey-driven dogs, Greyhounds are happy couch potatoes and will be satisfied with a daily walk and playtime at home. This is especially true for former racing Greyhounds who are more than content to retire to a life of relaxation. Very sensitive, snuggly, and loving, Greyhounds are tuned into your emotions and needs. They are quiet dogs, but they are also inclined towards separation anxiety and separation-based destruction. So start training them early how to handle your leaving the house if you don’t want to come home to the destruction of all your worldly possessions. Havanese Playful, spirited, and brave, the Havanese is a high energy breed that requires daily mental stimulation. But they don’t need much more than a short daily walk when it comes to physical exercise. It’s a good idea, however, to bring this dog on regular outings in the world- especially to different locations whenever possible- to feed some of that mental energy. But, otherwise, the Havanese will be happy to spend the day indoors, sticking close to their family and snuggling. Lhasa Apso The Lhasa Apso is a loyal, sweet, and gentle dog with model-like hair. They’re also smart dogs, though, unlike many clever dog breeds (such as terriers), Lhasa Apsos are not inclined towards mischief or destruction when bored. They will, however, seek you out to ask for playtime and attention when they need it. They will also sound the alert if startled, so some training may be necessary. But, even then, the Lhasa Apso has a fairly quiet, and less-than-intimidating bark. Miniature Pinscher Miniature Pinschers are clever, fearless, and affectionate. Give them love, play, and a daily chance to sniff and explore, and your Miniature Pinscher (or â€Å"Min Pin†) will have everything its heart desires. These are natural watchdogs, but easily trained, so you can curb excessive barking with a little know-how (and a lot of treats!). Min Pin’s need a chance to run at least once or twice a week, but are otherwise content with a daily walk and some playtime at home. Papillon The Papillon is a smart, responsive, and playful breed. They can be timid towards strangers, but once they love you they love you, and there’s no letting go. Graceful and energetic, they love to play with their families and need to run off some energy, but a daily walk and some time in the park will be enough for them. Pekingese The Pekingese is an affectionate, but not overly-needy dog, happy to spend time either alone or with people. A Pekingese will also alert you to any visitors that come a’knocking, but won’t get carried away with barking. They are sweet dogs, eager to cuddle and play, but who don’t need too much exercise. In fact, the Pekingese is another brachiocephalic breed, so be careful with hot weather and letting your Pekingese get too much exercise too quickly. Toy Poodle All Poodle breeds (Toy Poodle, Miniature Poodle, and Standard Poodle) are highly intelligent dog breeds that are easily trainable. But the Toy Poodle requires the least amount of exercise of the three types and is often the most even-tempered, so they’re typically the best choice of the three breeds when it comes to apartment living. Curious and playful, the Toy Poodle does well when provided with regular stimulus. It’s a good idea to take your Toy Poodle out and about with you when you’re running errands or are otherwise outside. Letting them see the world will help them focus all that mental energy, and will provide a daily dose of fun. Pug Pugs are generally quiet, laid back dogs that make great apartment companions. They’re sweet and goofy, and while they’re happy to play with you, most Pugs don’t need excessive amounts of attention throughout the day to be happy. They also don’t require much exercise and too much can even be harmful, as their brachiocephalic faces can cause breathing problems if they over-exert themselves or are out too long in hot weather. Do note that they can be prone to weight-gain, however, so be diligent in balancing out their meals and walks. Shih Tzu Friendly and relaxed, the Shih Tzu often has a large-dog temperament in a small-dog body. They’ll be happy to explore the world with you or chill out on the couch, depending on what you want to do that day. They’re also eager to learn and are highly trainable, so playtime is a must. But they don’t need too much in the way of exercise to be content. Silky Terrier Silky Terriers (or â€Å"Silkies†) are loyal and loving to their families, but are often wary of the world. So they can be prone to giving the alert by barking, both indoors and out, but training will help curb this tendency. Playful and energetic little dogs, Silkies are eager to play but will be happy with a short daily walk when it comes to their exercise needs. And when they’re not playing, they’re happy to curl up in small spaces, which makes apartment living perfect for them. Skye Terrier Pleple2000/Wikimedia Affectionate and fearless, Skye Terriers will take on the world, but they are sensitive to harsh words or reprimands from their families. Come at them gently and they’ll never be far from your side. Skye Terriers are mild-mannered and easily adaptable to city life and apartment living. They need daily walks but are otherwise content to play, explore, and snuggle at home. Tibetan Spaniel Tibetan Spaniels are extremely easy-going dogs. Adaptable to new situations and environments, they are equally as happy to go on long walks as they are to snuggle on the couch. Though they may sound the alarm for visitors, a well-placed treat will silence any barking. And they’re otherwise quiet enough that your neighbors will wonder whether or not you even have a dog in your apartment. Yorkshire Terrier Like most terriers, Yorkshire Terriers (or Yorkies) are spunky little balls of mischief and fun. They’re loving and cuddly with their families, but they are often shy of strangers. Many will try to run away or hide if a stranger tries to pet them, so it’s a good idea to socialize them early. Yorkies are energetic and playful and are happy to run, but don’t actually require much daily exercise beyond a regular, half-hour walk. Many Yorkies will also sound the alarm by barking if they hear visitors or other â€Å"suspicious† noises, but training can minimize this tendency. How to Help Any Dog Adjust to Apartment Living Though these are the best dog breeds for apartments, most dogs can learn to live in an apartment with enough exercise and the right training. And even the best apartment dogs will need to learn how to cope with the unique circumstances that make up apartment living. So let’s look at what you need to do to teach your dog how to adapt to apartment living. #1: Train Them to Get Used to the Noise Apartments can be loud. There’s noise above you, below you, to the sides of you, and the noise from people walking down the hallway in front of your front door. To your dog, all these people making noise near your home is a flagrant breech of privacy, and they can induce fear, anxiety, and even fear-based aggression. Help your dog get used to the noise of apartment living by connecting the noise to positive stimuli. Give your dog a happy-sounding cue word (like, â€Å"What’s that?!†) and a treat whenever you hear the noise from your neighbors. You can also invite a friend over (one that your dog likes) to knock on your door. Give the cue word and the treat when your dog hears the noise, then give your dog an extra reward by letting your friend inside for happy pats and cuddles. #2: Give Them Their Own Designated Space Your dog is a part of your family, and the apartment is a den for all of you to share. But just like you need your own space away from other people sometimes, so too does your dog. Make the apartment seem larger for your dog by providing them with their own, human-free zone. This might be a crate, or a dog playpen, or even just a dog bed in the corner of the apartment. Just make sure it’s a space where your dog can retreat to when they want some time alone and that you don’t try to bother your pup when it goes there. #3: Introduce Them to Other Dogs in the Complex If your apartment complex allows dogs, then chances are there are a good number of other dogs living in the building. To help your dog feel comfortable with these dogs (especially hearing these dogs move, bark, or whine throughout the day), see if you can introduce your pup to the other dogs in the building. Try to take your dog to the places the other dogs go for bathroom breaks, or introduce yourself to any of your neighbors that you see with dogs. Set up doggy playdates to help your pup make friends with the neighbor dogs (and you may even make some human friends out of it too!). #4: Teach Them How to Use a Wee Mat or Train Them to â€Å"Hold It† for Long Periods of Time Wee mats smell faintly of urine and pheromones, so dogs will naturally be inclined to potty on them. But even so, you’ll have to train your dog on how to use the wee mat or the indoor turf to make the process fun and easy and avoid any accidents. If you choose to forgo wee mats and train your dog to wait until you can go outside together, then you’ll have to progress slowly. Many grown dogs can potentially hold their bladders for upwards of 8 hours, but not all dogs can manage this. Start by taking your dog outside every 2 to 3 hours and then increase the time between outings by half an hour every few days until you get up to between 6 and 8 hours. If your dog starts to have accidents indoors or sniffs or whines to go outside, then you may need to decrease the time between potty breaks. Alternatively, you may think about getting a doggy turf to place in your bathroom or on the apartment balcony.

Implications for Defence Managers and Commanders of the Findings of Research Paper

Implications for Defence Managers and Commanders of the Findings of Zimbardos Stanford Prison Experiment - Research Paper Example Take one prisoner as an example; he is kept inside a closed room with only one opening ornamented with hard iron rods but, what happens when one good human being is put in an evil place Does humanity win over evil, or does evil triumphs "A prison is any situation in which one person's freedom and liberty are denied by virtue of the arbitrary power exercised by another person or group. Thus our prisons of concrete and steel are really only metaphors for the social prisons we create and maintain through enforced poverty, racism, sexism, and other forms of social injustice." (Committee on the Judiciary, 114) The above quote is what Dr. Philip Zimbardo, a Ph. D. in Psychology from Stanford University derived from his famous Stanford Prison Experiment. The Stanford prison experiment was a psychological study of "human responses to captivity and its behavioral effects on both authorities and inmates in prison". The experiment was conducted in 1971 in Palo Alto, California by a team of researchers led by psychologist Philip Zimbardo at Stanford University. As per the scheduled plan, voluntary participants were recruited via a newspaper ad and offered $15 a day to participate in a two-week "prison simulation." An astonishing number of 75 students responded. The applicants were interviewed and tested "to eliminate candidates with psychological problems, medical disabilities, or a history of crime or drug abuse" (Stanford Prison Experiment website). Twenty-four students from the U.S. and Canada, a group of healthy, intelligent, middle-class males, were considered for the experiment and were promised of $15/day. They were divided into two groups, to act as guards and prisoners. A former prisoner who had served nearly seventeen years behind bars served as the consultant. A prison was constructed in the basement of Stanford's Psychology Department building, To create prison cells, doors were taken off some laboratory rooms and replaced by specially made doors with steel bars and cell numbers. Bars on cells were put in place and had three prisoners living in small quarters night and day. A small closet, about two feet wide and two feet deep was constructed to act as "The Hole" for solitary confinement. The local police co-operated in sweeping through the town, picking up suspects who were actually the selected volunteers, they were put into a car, driven to the Stanford county jail for further processing and subsequently brought to the make-shift jail. The prisoners were each searched, stripped naked, and deloused. The prisoner has then issued a uniform. The main part of this uniform was a dress, or smock, which each prisoner wore at all times with no underclothes. On the smock, in front, and in the back, was his prison ID number. On each prisoner's ri ght ankle was a heavy chain, bolted on and worn at all times. Rubber sandals were the footwear, and each prisoner covered his hair with a stocking cap made from a woman's nylon stocking. The entire experiment was recorded and videotaped. The guards weren't given any specific training; they made up their own rules upon supervision of Warden David Jaffe, an undergraduate from Stanford University. They were dressed in identical uniforms of khaki, carried a whistle and a billy club borrowed from the police.  Ã‚  

How too conduct an accident investigation in the workplace Essay

How too conduct an accident investigation in the workplace - Essay Example Once at the scene take photographs and examine the site thoroughly for any possible causes of the accident or underlying causes that may have attributed to the event. For example if the site itself is an open plan work-room, describe the layout of the room with the position of all furniture, noting whether it was fixed or movable and in what condition it is in. Take a note of all, if any, cables and wiring and their location in regards to the accident, also note the type of lighting in the room, and if there are any bulbs or lights not working in case the room dimmed enough to cause an accident. Note what type of flooring the room has, if it carpeted or tiled and if there are any frayed or loose edges, or if the floor is made of polished wood or linoleum, if so is it polished enough to cause a person to slip. Is there any possibility of spilt liquids or leakages from over head pipes or under floor pipes. Once the site has been investigated and thoroughly examined the next stage is to interview the injured person or persons and any witnesses present or involved in the accident, including those who had a role after the event. Keep a copy of the report to hand, but as the injured party to describe the event prior to and leading up to their having the accident.

The Age of New Media Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

The Age of New Media - Essay Example But, the flip side to all such developments is that the technology is also being used by some anti-social groups to carry out some destructive activities. For example, the terror network of groups like Al-Qaida etc. has been quite active in making use of networking, satellite communication etc. to shape up the nasty designs and thus causing tension in the society. Well, such groups have their own versions of truth, which they claim to be the motivation behind such acts. Therefore the governments of the world are supposed to come out with measures which can detect such designs and take corrective steps. The business world today has become quite competitive. With shrinking profit margins and high levels of competition, the corporate world has been trying to minimise the costs associated with the production and manufacturing of goods and services. Minimising the pilferage happens to be another key motive during the production and transportation of goods and services. Therefore the company management tries out ways and means to take effective control of such happenings and plan out strategies to counter them. Similarly, the retail industry is known to have a number of items on display in such a manner that customers can have a reassuring look at the items and if they feel convinced, they can purchase those products. But there are occasions when some unscrupulous elements try to lift the items without the knowledge of the sales person. To avoid such shop-lifting attempts, retail stores are supposed to put in place a mechanism so that they can keep an eye on suspicious elements. All such developments point out to one common phenomenon known as surveillance. If we take a look at the history of surveillance, the image of a burly spy in trench-coat standing on the roadside corner in the rain keeping an eye on the movement of the general public immediately comes to our mind. But the system of surveillance has graduated from this scenario and today the spy is not required to sweat out in the hot summer or drench himself in the rain, he can gather all the information on his desktop, laptop, palmtop, mobile or other handy gadgets, at the press of a button, thanks to the information gathering network. Though the modus operandi defers depending upon the importance and strategic nature of the surveillance, but one factor common in all such acts is the monitoring of our actions in different measure. While on the one hand we have biometrics machines on airports, railway stations, bus station, important offices etc. the RF tagging is used to keep an eye on goods as well as the movement of the workforce at many companies. A report brought out by the surveillance society in the year 2006 pointed out that the heightened concerns in view of the levels of intrusion in citizen's lives2. There are of course the incidents like the 9/11 attacks, the London bombing, the Mumbai shootout, the Pakistani bomb blasts, the Afghanistan war etc. which require intelligence inputs so that the terror elements are not in a position to work out similar incidents, but at

Electronic Commerce in Private Purchasing Essay Example for Free

Electronic Commerce in Private Purchasing Essay I guess you can say that ecommerce started back in the 70’s with EFT (Electronic Funds Transfer), in the 80’s with EDI (Electronic Data Interchange). The 90’s around 1995 is when the internet move from the federal sector to commercial sector when NSF (National Science Foundation) decommissioned NSFNET and move assets to vBNS (Very-High-Speed Backbone Network Services) which serves as a testing ground for the next generation of internet technologies, which allow ISP (Internet Service Providers) to develop. After the internet was develop we had an explosive growth mostly in â€Å"Dot Coms† ventures many professional left the major firm and job security to join start ups for the promise of millions of dollar. In the mid 2000 when the NASDAQ collapsed in March hundreds of thousands of people lost their jobs, stock values plummeted and thousand of company filed bankruptcy, downsized or were taken over by competitors. The subsequent stock market crash caused the loss of $5 trillion in the market value of companies from March 2000 to October 2002. By the early 2003 companies that were well-conceived internet based companies were proving their values, consumers became confidence in buying over the internet and business began to realize the internet can create true operation efficiencies and increase profit. The explosion in the use of the Internet has paved the way for several path-breaking innovations. One of the most interesting and exciting aspects of this evolution is the emergence of electronic business (e-business) as a mainstream and viable alternative to more traditional methods of businesses being conducted today. E-business is defined as the process of using electronic technology to do business. It is the day and age of electronic business. Also the structure of the Web is rapidly evolving from a loose collection of Web sites into organized market places. The phenomena of aggregation, portals, large enterprise sites, and business-to-business applications are resulting in centralized, virtual places, through which millions of visitors pass daily. Ecommerce redefines the very foundations of competitiveness in terms of information content and information delivery mechanisms. Flows of information over international networks have created an electronic market-space of firms that are learning to exploit business opportunities. E-business has become standard operating procedure for the vast majority of companies. Ecommerce is the subset of e-business that focuses specifically on commerce. Commerce is the exchange of goods and services for other goods and services or for cash payment. There are several different types of ecommerce Business-to-Business (B2B), Business-to-Consumer (B2C), Business-to-Government (B2G), Consumer-to-Consumer (C2C) and Mobile commerce (m-commerce). A B2B system exchanges server programs and encoded files while communicating with other businesses. There are two types of B2B websites: vertical and horizontal. A vertical B2B ecommerce website is designed to meet the needs of a specific industry, and helps build connections between business communities in order to generate new business. A horizontal ecommerce website can be used by any company that is involved in buying and selling products or services. B2B ecommerce strategy can reduce operational costs, increase sales, and strengthen relationships between trading partners. These websites can help expand your presence in the marketplace and lower your procurement costs while handling an unlimited number of products. While B2B ecommerce reduces human intervention, overhead expenses, and errors, it also increases efficiency and advertising exposure and companys sales team and account managers can concentrate on generating new business. Business to Consumer (B2C) Business to consumer is the second largest and the earliest form of e-commerce. The more common B2C business models are the online retailing companies such as Amazon. com, Barnes and Noble and ToysRus. Other B2C examples involving information goods are E-Trade and Travelocity. The more common applications of this type of e-commerce are in the areas of purchasing products and information, and personal finance management. The market researchers from eMarketers estimate the number of online buyers to be around 900 million worldwide. This brought in the online traders worldwide a turnover of over one billion US$ for the first time. EMarketers estimate the British to be the biggest spenders per head where on average every online buyer spent 3,885 US$ in 2012. US ecommerce and Online Retail sales projected to reach $226 billion, an increase of 12 percent over 2011. 2012: US ecommerce and Online Retail holiday sales reach $33. 8 billion, up 13 percent over 2011. B2C e-commerce reduces transactions costs (particularly search costs) by increasing consumer access to information and allowing consumers to find the most competitive price for a product or service, it also reduces market entry barriers since the cost of putting up and maintaining a Web site is much cheaper than building a structure for a firm. And with information goods, B2C e-commerce is even more attractive because it saves firms from factoring in the additional cost of a physical distribution network and for countries with a growing and robust Internet population, delivering information goods becomes increasingly feasible. Electronic commerce and the Internet are redefining how consumers learn, select, purchase, and use products and services. Hence, B2C or Business-to-consumer retail holds significant business opportunities. A manufacturer with a dedicated ecommerce website can use it to increase margins, monetize existing brand loyalty and leverage competitive advantage. At the same time, he can increase awareness for the brand, provide important product information to customers, and gather valuable customer data to improve business prospects. There are a number of benefits which make owning a B2C ecommerce website inevitable for manufacturers. The ecommerce brings the shopping experience to the consumer’s home. By launching a B2C ecommerce website, the manufacturers’ bring the convenience and comfort of shopping to the consumers thereby increasing their prospective customers. When the manufacturer owns the retailing operations also, it can create brand awareness more prominently. By reaching out to new markets the manufacturers can increase their business’s brand name and about their product line. The e-shopping is accessible from anywhere anytime, thus it proves to be a quick and easy mode of providing information. Manufacturers can provide extensive updated information of their product range through their customized ecommerce website design. Consumer-to-consumer (C2C) Consumer-to-consumer (C2C) is the business of conducting goods and services over the Internet to consumers from consumers. Another way to describe C2C is that it conducts e-commerce with consumers and themselves or to a third-party. Before any consumer-to-consumer business can be formed over the Internet, there needs to established of a space where individuals can come together. These â€Å"gathering spaces† are called online or virtual community in which a collection of people come to one site to communicate, connect, and get to know one another. From there, people can establish a multitude of community themes to bring similar minded people. Some examples of communities: * Communities of interest – people who come together over the Internet to share a common interest like professions, sports, hobbies, philosophy, trading, and others. Communities of relations – people who come together over the Internet to share stories of relations such as friends, families, and/or relationships. Some examples of these communities would be like Myspace or Facebook. * Communities of fantasy – people who come together over the Internet to share fantasies over the internet like fantasy football or baseb all. Another example would be a site that allows people to write their own stories of fiction. Another type of online community that establishes a consumer-to-consumer electronic commerce is called an online or electronic auction site. An e-auction is like a regular auction; however,  the  sales of bidding are done online. It is a place where sellers and buyers bid for items listed on the auction sites such as Ebay or Amazon. Two types of auctions that can occur:   * Forward Auction – an auction that sellers use to have buyers bid on their merchandise till the highest bidder wins. * Reverse Auction – like the forward auction, this auction is used by consumers that want to buy goods or services. However, the buyer selects the seller that has the lowest bid. An example of this would be seen in Amazon. com where instead of purchasing a product from them, a person can buy from other sellers. When going into the listing of other vendors, the website usually posts the lowest asking price first. Then, the next lowest price is listed all the way up to the last seller that has the highest price of all the listings. There are many benefits that a consumer-to-consumer e-commerce has. One of the main factors is a reduction in costs. Sellers can post their goods over the internet cheaply compared to the high rent space in a store. The lower expenses lead to smaller, yet profitable customer base. Being in a community of similar interest where buyers and sellers come together leading to more chances of goods and services being sold. Another benefit is that many small businesses can obtain a higher profitability over a C2C compared to a physical store because of the reduction of overhead costs when conducting an e-business. Probably the most positive benefit of the consumer-to-consumer sites is the effectiveness in selling personal items. There are also disadvantages that a C2C e-commerce has. One of the main factors is it is not always the safest and most reliable place to conduct business. Sometimes buyers and sellers are not accommodating to each other when transactional information is needed. In these cases, a proof of purchase can solve liability issues and prevent costly lawsuits for a consumer and small businesses. Another disadvantage is that these types of sites are known for scams, swindles, and people with ill-business intentions. When things go wrong on C2C e-commerce communities, people can easily spread their stories across the internet which effectively is Word-of-Mouth advertising. Consumer-to-consumer marketing is on the rise, and 2013 will be the year when it explodes into the mainstream, becoming a must-have retail marketing tactic rather than just the mark of the out-there-brand-innovator. Communication is no longer about just businesses talking to anyone; it’s about people talking to people. Forget who’s on the end of the conversation. This is about where it all starts. The future of communications is C2C, or consumer2consumer or people2people. Individuals, whether buying for business or for themselves, are talking to and listening to other consumers. They are setting the agenda, leading the conversation, sharing their views, recommending the best products and deciding whether brands are successful or not. No longer are consumers just taking in information corporations and brands are spewing at them. Now they question and make brands earn their loyalty. Because of social media platforms, like Facebook and Twitter, consumers are now quick to ask brands: What can you do for me? So, today challenge is getting people talking about brands in a positive way, not getting brands to talk to people. With so many touch points, brands must move away from the traditional 1960s formula of one-sided information and start having conversations with consumers. Consumers want brands to be authentic and have a real human voice they can speak with when something goes wrong or right. Business-to-Government (B2G) Business-to-government (B2G) is a variation of the term business-to-business the concept that businesses and government agencies can use central Web sites to exchange information and do business with each other more efficiently than they usually can off the Web. A Web site offering B2G services could provide businesses with a single place to locate applications and tax forms for one or more levels of government (city, state or province, country, and so forth); provide the ability to send in filled-out forms and payments; update corporate information; request answers to specific questions. B2G may also include e-procurement services, in which businesses learn about the purchasing needs of agencies and agencies request proposal responses. B2G may also support the idea of a virtual workplace in which a business and an agency could coordinate the work on a contracted project by sharing a common site to coordinate online meetings, review plans, and manage progress. B2G may also include the rental of online applications and databases designed especially for use by government agencies. This kind of e-commerce has two features: first, the public sector assumes a pilot/leading role in establishing e-commerce; and second, it is assumed that the public sector has the greatest need for making its procurement system more effective. Web-based purchasing policies increase the transparency of the procurement process and reduce the risk of irregularities. To date, however, the size of the B2G e-commerce market as a component of total e-commerce is insignificant, as government e-procurement systems remain undeveloped. Mobile commerce (m-commerce) More and more users are buying tablets and using them for e-commerce due to the convenience it provides. The latest report from eMarketer predicts a surge in tablet commerce, turning the m-commerce into a $50 billion industry next year. The overall mobile commerce spending, including both tablets and Smartphone’s, in 2012 was $24. 66 billion, and this figure represented an 81% increase from the 2011 figures. EMarketer also report predicts total ecommerce spending from tablet devices alone to touch $24 billion by the end of 2013 and then almost double itself in a year to reach $50 billion by the end of 2014. The total mobile m-commerce sales would stand at about $39 billion in 2013. In 2013, 15% of all sales is expected to come from mobile devices, with tablets alone accounting for a dominant 9%. By 2016, tablets alone will account for a significant 17% of all sales. A big reason for the surge is the increasing rate of tablet adoption, as more and more people buy this new device. Traditionally, the ratio of new devices has been four Smartphone’s for every tablet. But Christmas Day 2012 sprang another surprise, when 49% of the 17. 4 million new devices activated were actually tablets. As content delivery over wireless devices becomes faster, more secure, and scalable, some believe that m-commerce will surpass wire line e-commerce as the method of choice for digital commerce transactions. This may well be true for the Asia-Pacific where there are more mobile phone users than there are Internet users. Industries affected by m-commerce include: Financial services, including mobile banking, as well as brokerage services; Telecommunications, in which service changes, bill payment and account reviews can all be conducted from the same handheld device; Service/retail, as consumers are given the ability to place and pay for orders on-the-fly; Information services, which include the delivery of entertainment, financial news, sports figures and traffic updates to a single mobile device.